By grade 12, students should be able to •     Formulate a question that can be investigated within the scope of the classroom, school laboratory, or field with available resources and, when appropriate, frame a hypothesis (that is, a possible explanation that predicts a particular and stable outcome) based on a model or theory. •     Decide what data are to be gathered, what tools are needed to do the gathering, and how measurements will be recorded. •     Decide how much data are needed to produce reliable measurements and consider any limitations on the precision of the data. •     Plan experimental or field-research procedures, identifying relevant independent and dependent variables and, when appropriate, the need for controls. •     Consider possible confounding variables or effects and ensure that the investigation’s design has controlled for them. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2012. A Framework for K-12 Science Education: Practices, Crosscutting Concepts, and Core Ideas. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/13165.